The Habit of Excellence

1. Excellence is a Habit, Not an Act.

"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit."

Daily choices. The core philosophy of British Army leadership posits that excellence isn't a singular heroic deed, but the consistent, daily practice of doing what is right, difficult, and necessary. This means that the small, seemingly insignificant choices made every day accumulate to define a leader's character and a team's performance. This principle applies universally, whether in military operations or civilian life, emphasizing the power of consistent effort over sporadic brilliance.

Character development. As Aristotle taught, character is a habit, a moral quality that matures in peace and is tested in war. The Army understands that individual and collective behavior on the battlefield is a direct reflection of the character developed during peacetime through consistent training and adherence to standards. This continuous cultivation of moral courage and discipline ensures that leaders and soldiers are prepared for the ultimate test of conscience that war presents.

Universal application. This foundational idea transcends the military context, offering a powerful lesson for any individual or organization striving for high performance. It underscores that sustained success is built on a relentless commitment to incremental improvements and the habitual practice of core principles, rather than relying on occasional grand gestures. The Army's emphasis on this habit of excellence provides a blueprint for cultivating resilience, discipline, and unwavering commitment in any demanding environment.

2. British Army Leadership: A Legacy of Continuous Professionalization.

"The foundations of Army leadership that this book will explore are not novel creations, but modern manifestations of these evolutions: outcomes of thinking, controversies, hard-fought arguments and hard-won lessons spanning more than three and a half centuries."

Historical evolution. British Army leadership has undergone a profound transformation over 360 years, moving from an aristocratic model where commissions were purchased, to a professional, meritocratic system. Early leadership prized personal honor and courage, but lacked formal training, with much administration left to NCOs. This traditional mindset, often resistant to change, gradually gave way to a more structured approach.

Drivers of change. Disastrous failures in conflicts like the Crimean War (1853–6) and the Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) spurred significant reforms. These included:

• Establishment of Staff College (1858)
• Introduction of examinations for promotion
• Abolition of the purchase system (1870)
• Creation of a General Staff (1906–12)
  These changes mirrored the professionalization of civilian fields, emphasizing demonstrable qualifications and a more enlightened, paternalistic approach to soldier welfare.

Modern doctrine. The two World Wars further accelerated professionalization, forcing the Army to recruit from diverse backgrounds and adopt systematic selection methods like the War Office Selection Boards (WOSBs). Post-1945, irregular conflicts emphasized decentralized command, leading to the formal codification of leadership doctrine in 2016. This doctrine, alongside the Centre for Army Leadership (CAL), ensures that leadership is now collectively understood, taught, and applied across all ranks, blending historical wisdom with contemporary needs.

3. The Profession of Arms Demands Unique Leadership and Unlimited Liability.

"All British soldiers share the legal right and duty to fight and, if necessary, kill, according to their orders, and an unlimited liability to give their lives in doing so."

Distinctive nature. The military is a profession unlike any other, defined by the "unlimited liability" of its members to risk their lives in service of the nation. This fundamental principle means soldiers accept the responsibility to engage in combat, use lethal force, and face mortal danger, creating a unique set of requirements for Army leadership. Leaders must prepare their people for these extreme circumstances, including the psychological burden and moral dilemmas inherent in warfare.

Magnified responsibilities. The gravity of this undertaking amplifies every aspect of leadership. Fostering team morale, shared identity, and high standards of discipline are not merely important, but life-dependent. Leaders bear an unusual burden, knowing their decisions directly impact the safety and lives of their soldiers, and they are accountable for ensuring their safe return to families. This deep sense of obligation underpins the Army's commitment to leadership development.

Ethical imperative. Operating within a democratic society, the Army must apply force ethically and lawfully, maintaining public trust. Leaders are crucial in setting a strong ethical example, monitoring behavior, and intervening decisively to prevent moral or legal transgressions, especially in the distorting context of war. This constant vigilance ensures that the Army's unique powers are exercised responsibly, aligning military effectiveness with societal values.

4. Values and Standards are the Moral Bedrock of Army Leadership.

"Unless an Army is focused on higher ethics, it risks moral bankruptcy. This is vitally important because a morally bankrupt force, even if effective, risks alienation from the community it serves."

Ethical grounding. The Army's Values and Standards—courage, discipline, respect for others, integrity, loyalty, and selfless commitment—are non-discretionary principles defining expected behaviors. Codified in 2000 following ethical failings like the Baha Mousa death and Deepcut Barracks incidents, they provide a moral compass for all personnel. These values ensure the Army operates within UK law and societal expectations, even in extreme combat situations.

Habitual behavior. These principles are not just words but are ingrained through career-long training and assessment, forming the habits essential for operational effectiveness. Daily acts of respect, integrity, and selfless commitment build the intuitive trust needed for soldiers and officers to function effectively under pressure. The "Service Test" ("Have the actions or behaviour of an individual adversely impacted or are they likely to impact on the efficiency or operational effectiveness of the Service?") reinforces the direct link between values and mission success.

Preventing moral mission creep. Leaders must exemplify these values and actively prevent their distortion. History shows that values, if not consistently upheld by moral leadership, can be twisted to justify immoral acts, as seen in the My Lai massacre or the "wall of silence" in the Baha Mousa case. Leaders must intervene to prohibit wrong actions as much as they demonstrate right ones, ensuring that the extreme nature of war does not corrupt the moral compass of their teams.

5. Mission Command: Empowering Initiative Through Trust.

"The mission should leave the subordinate commander as much freedom of execution as possible and should contain only those constraints essential to co-operation with other units."

Decentralized authority. Mission Command is the British Army's core command philosophy, emphasizing clear intent from commanders and freedom for subordinates to act. This approach minimizes rigid control and information asymmetry, enabling speed, agility, and self-direction across the chain of command. Subordinate commanders are trusted to use their initiative and make judgments based on their immediate understanding of a fast-moving situation, within the bounds of the overall intent.

Trust as fuel. This philosophy is predicated on high levels of trust: leaders must trust followers to interpret and implement intent, and followers must trust leaders to make decisions supporting their safety and the mission. This mutual trust is the "fuel that drives the Army and the glue that holds it together," crucial for rapid decision-making with imperfect information. It fosters "intelligent disobedience," where subordinates are confident to challenge or even countermand orders if the situation demands it.

Creating the right climate. For Mission Command to thrive, leaders must cultivate an environment of deep trust, mutual understanding, and robust communication. This involves:

• Developing leaders at all levels.
• Nurturing strong leader-follower relationships.
• Instilling the skills and confidence for independent decision-making.
• Encouraging constructive challenge.
  This symbiotic balance between trust and control motivates participants and finds the most efficient route to desired results, adapting to context and experience levels.

6. Serve to Lead: The Paradoxical Foundation of Credibility.

"They won’t care how much you know, until they know how much you care."

Service before self. The motto of Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, "Serve to Lead," encapsulates the paradoxical idea that true authority is freely granted by the led to leaders who are proven and trusted as servants. Effective leadership does not stem from the pursuit of rank or power, but from a deep commitment to meeting the needs and supporting the development of others. This service mindset is the bedrock of trust, loyalty, and integrity within the Army.

Commitment to development. A servant leader embraces responsibility for those under their command, dedicating their own talents and time to the service of others. This commitment is measured by whether those served "grow as persons," becoming healthier, wiser, freer, and more autonomous. It's about providing opportunities, letting people learn from failure, and offering guidance, akin to a parent nurturing their child's growth.

Credibility through care. Servant leadership does not imply passivity; rather, it means being a catalyst, a permission-giver, and backing the skills of those around you. Leaders gain credibility and earn trust by demonstrating genuine care for their people, especially in challenging circumstances. This unstinting service, extending beyond the working day and even beyond military careers, ensures that leaders earn the consent to lead, making them effective and respected.

7. Leaders are Role Models, Custodians, and Parent Figures.

"It is leadership by example in this mould that turns the Army’s Values from words on a page into tangible realities, enabling them to be understood, followed and embraced by all."

Role models. Leaders set an example through their personal conduct, attitude, and willingness to share risks. Lieutenant Colonel Rupert Thorneloe, killed leading from the front in Afghanistan, and Lance Corporal Hill, volunteering for dangerous IED patrols, exemplify how courage and selfless commitment become tangible through action. This constant demonstration of values, even in seemingly small interactions, shapes culture and behavior, making leaders the primary exemplars of the Army's ethos.

Custodians of standards. Leaders are also custodians, protecting and maintaining the Army's core culture, values, and performance standards. This is most evident in upholding discipline, which ensures cohesion in chaotic situations. RSM John Lord, rebuilding morale and discipline in a WWII POW camp through insistence on standards, illustrates how a leader's influence can restore self-discipline and fighting spirit. This role extends to safeguarding regimental traditions and ensuring that high standards are consistently maintained, preventing moral erosion.

Parent figures. The intense feeling of responsibility in Army leadership, especially for young soldiers, is akin to parenthood. Leaders protect, discipline, teach, care for, and nurture their people, often in extreme circumstances. General Dwight D. Eisenhower's advice to Sandhurst cadets—"You must be their leader, their father, their mentor"—highlights this deep duty of care. This responsibility extends beyond the battlefield, encompassing soldiers' welfare, mental health, and personal development, fostering a unique family ethos that endures long after service.

8. Effective Leadership Requires Deep Self-Knowledge and Understanding of Others.

"Know your job and know your men. Those are the two kinds of knowledge you have got to have."

Knowing yourself. Leaders must cultivate self-awareness, self-improvement, and self-care. Self-awareness helps leaders understand their strengths and weaknesses, fostering empathy and humility. Self-improvement is a continuous process, leveraging professional education and reading military history to enhance competence. Self-care, as exemplified by Field Marshal Alanbrooke's hobbies during WWII, is crucial for maintaining personal energy and perspective amidst overwhelming responsibilities, preventing burnout and poor decision-making.

Knowing your people. Understanding individuals—their personalities, capabilities, needs, and mindset—is paramount. Leaders must invest time to learn what motivates each soldier, how they can be inspired, and their most effective role. Sydney Jary's account of Private Charles Raven, an unlikely but essential soldier, highlights the importance of looking beyond obvious shortcomings to harness unique contributions. This personal knowledge allows leaders to tailor their approach, providing appropriate challenge or support based on individual circumstances and potential.

Knowing relationships and power. Leaders must grasp the dynamics of leader-follower relationships and the various forms of power. Robert E. Kelley's "effective followers" proactively interpret intent and provide critical feedback, augmenting a leader's capabilities. Understanding French and Raven's five bases of social power (reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, expert) helps leaders use influence judiciously. T.E. Lawrence's success in the Arab Revolt demonstrates how deep situational and cultural knowledge, combined with subtle influence, can be more effective than overt authority, especially in complex, ambiguous environments.

9. Action-Centred Leadership: Balancing Task, Team, and Individual Needs.

"The role of the leader is to address this tension, and ensure that the three groups of need remain balanced."

Achieve the task. The first priority is defining and achieving the mission. This involves:

• Defining purpose and aim: Clear commander's intent (Slim's "one overriding expression of will").
• Planning and communication: Ensuring all involved understand the mission and their role (Brigadier Ridge in Operation RUMAN).
• Resource management: Directing resources and personal time effectively.
  Leaders must maintain focus on the main effort, adapt plans as circumstances evolve, and avoid "mission creep." This requires understanding the wider operational, political, and cultural context, as demonstrated by Brigadier Ridge's diplomatic role in Operation RUMAN.

Build teams. Teams are the bedrock of the Army's culture and operational effectiveness. Leaders must:

• Harness culture: Draw on regimental history and traditions to foster collective ethos (Lance Corporal Josh Leakey's pride in the Parachute Regiment).
• Create climate: Consciously shape the working environment, setting clear expectations and standards (Lieutenant Colonel Will Meddings' "humble excellence").
• Train hard, fight easy: Use rigorous training to build cohesion, self-confidence, and psychological resilience (Major Chris Keeble in the Falklands).
  Team building is a continuous process, reinforced by competitive sport and adventurous training, which develop trust and shared identity.

Develop individuals. Maximizing individual potential is crucial for robust teams. Leaders must:

• Coach and mentor: Help every soldier achieve their potential, providing opportunities and constructive feedback (General Sir Mark Carleton-Smith's mentor).
• Delegate responsibility: Allow individuals to learn from mistakes in a safe environment.
• Handle individualists: Give mavericks space to contribute without destabilizing the team.
  This involves understanding each person's unique needs and motivations, balancing challenge with support. The Action Centred Leadership model emphasizes that neglecting any one of these three priorities—task, team, or individual—will ultimately undermine overall success.

10. Soldier Leadership (NCOs) is the Army's Indispensable Backbone.

"[JNCOs] are the people who deliver victory on the battlefield for our commanders at the point of contact. They’re the soldier that executes every order. They’re the people who make soldiers leave the Army and the people who make soldiers stay in the Army. They are our vital ground."

The majority of leadership. NCOs constitute the vast majority of the Army's leadership, providing visible, direct example and day-to-day management. Their parallel rank structure, from lance corporal to warrant officer, offers a distinct leadership track with its own history and development stages. NCOs are the primary agents of influence and delivery, translating officer intent into action at the point of contact, ensuring the mission is not divorced from the people who must execute it.

Junior NCOs (JNCOs). Lance corporals and corporals are the Army's first line of command, responsible for fire teams and sections. Their role is a proving ground for leadership skills, demanding:

• Adaptation: Adjusting from peer to leader, balancing friendship with authority.
• Communication: Converting orders into action, motivating diverse soldiers.
• Decision-making: Making snap tactical judgments under pressure, often in isolation ("strategic corporal").
  Corporals, as instructors for new recruits, are crucial role models, shaping initial perceptions of soldiering and leadership.

Senior NCOs (SNCOs) and Warrant Officers (WOs). Sergeants, colour sergeants, and warrant officers are highly experienced, long-serving members of their regiments, embodying legitimate, expert, and referent power. They:

• Mentor officers: Guide inexperienced junior officers, providing ground truth and balancing authority.
• Manage logistics: Ensure platoons and companies have necessary resources (platoon sergeant as 2IC).
• Uphold standards: Act as ultimate exemplars of regimental ethos and discipline (RSM Beattie's tirade).
  The RSM, a WO1, is a legendary figure, the CO's right-hand, whose influence galvanizes the entire regiment. The recent advent of command sergeant majors ensures the soldier's voice reaches the highest strategic levels.

11. Peacetime Leadership Builds the Moral and Physical Foundations for War.

"Character as Aristotle taught is a habit, the daily choice of right instead of wrong; it is a moral quality which grows to maturity in peace and is not suddenly developed on the outbreak of war."

Preparation for the unknown. Peacetime is crucial for establishing the foundations of operational success, as battlefield behavior is conditioned by prior character development. Leaders must prepare teams for a wide spectrum of future operations, often without knowing the specific nature of the next deployment. This requires developing general capabilities like adaptability, quick planning, and resilience under pressure, rather than just specific technical skills.

Cultivating climate and cohesion. The barracks environment is where leaders shape the unit's climate, building on the Army's culture, values, and standards. This involves:

• Clear intent: Communicating expected standards and operating principles (Lt Col Will Meddings' "humble excellence").
• Consistent reinforcement: Using discipline and reward to uphold standards and prevent "toxic leadership."
• Developing people: Maximizing individual potential through coaching, mentoring, and delegation, ensuring every rank holder develops those below them.
  This work fosters the group friendships, pride, and confidence essential for cohesion.

Training for adversity. Exercises are vital for developing the moral component of fighting power—morale, fighting spirit, and mutual trust. "Train hard, fight easy" means rigorous training in extreme conditions builds collective resilience and individual decision-making skills. Adventurous training (AT) further stretches leaders in unfamiliar, risky environments, enhancing adaptability and problem-solving. This preparation is critical for homeland operations, where military teams must rapidly adapt to civilian contexts and unfamiliar partners, as seen in Operation RESCRIPT and PITCHPOLE.

12. Future Leadership: Adapting to Change While Preserving Enduring Fundamentals.

"The nature of war is never gonna change. But the character of war is changing before our eyes."

Navigating constant change. The Army continually finds itself at the intersection of continuity and change, facing a future defined by rapid technological, social, and geopolitical shifts. Leaders must distinguish trends from anomalies, weigh experience against uncertainty, and balance short-term priorities with long-term requirements. This demands humility, foresight, and a willingness to adapt, avoiding the pitfalls of either underappreciating change or overcorrecting too abruptly.

Evolving operating environment. The future operating environment is characterized by:

• Fluid adversaries: Non-state actors, sub-threshold conflict, cyber and information warfare.
• Technological advancements: AI, autonomous systems, space capabilities.
• Global mega-trends: Climate change, urbanization, resource competition.
  This requires leaders to think across multiple time horizons, preparing for what is known, possible, and unforeseen. The Army must operate as a "Whole Force," integrating military and civilian partners, often leading without direct authority in complex, ambiguous situations.

Enduring fundamentals, evolving practice. While the human element of leadership—relationships, trust, inspiration—will endure, its practice must evolve. Values-based leadership will require leaders to be adept communicators and translators of values across diverse contexts. Action-centred leadership will demand greater focus on individual needs. Servant leadership will become more complex, requiring deeper emotional intelligence to meet the expanded expectations of autonomy and personal development from new generations. Mission Command will be more critical than ever, necessitating consistent practice in all environments to build agile, independent decision-making.

Learning and adaptability. The Army's future depends on its ability to be a learning organization, continuously acquiring and transferring knowledge. This means reducing organizational distance between ranks, valuing the insights of junior personnel, and fostering a culture of questioning and experimentation. Leaders must become change agents, orchestrating, questioning, and following, not just commanding. The core art of leadership remains uniting people around a common purpose, but the methods and practices must constantly adapt to the challenges of tomorrow.

Last updated: December 31, 2025