Key Takeaways
1. The Treaty of Ghent: A Fleeting Promise of Peace
Yet there is something tragic in believing that if we explain why Andrew Jackson drove the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole west to Oklahoma in the early nineteenth century, we have explained Indian removal.
Beyond Jackson. The story of Indian removal extends far beyond Andrew Jackson and the "Five Civilized Tribes" of the South, reaching back to the War of 1812 and involving many other tribes, particularly those in Ohio. The Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, initially offered a glimmer of hope for a lasting peace between Americans and Indians. British negotiators, having allied with tribes like Tecumseh's confederation, demanded the creation of a permanent Indian nation north of the Ohio River as a condition for peace.
British Betrayal. This demand, however, was ultimately abandoned by the British due to their military setbacks and the Duke of Wellington's pragmatic advice to secure Canada's borders rather than fight for an Indian state. The final Article IX of the Treaty of Ghent merely called for an end to hostilities and a return to the pre-1811 status quo for the tribes. This meant restoring their "possessions, rights, and privileges" as they existed before the war, a promise that would prove difficult, if not impossible, to uphold.
A False Dawn. For American leaders like James Madison and James Monroe, Article IX was a miracle, a chance to finally bring peace to the western frontier and break the bond between the British and the Indians. They genuinely believed that turning back the clock to before Tecumseh's uprising would lead to a permanent friendship with the tribes. However, this optimism overlooked the underlying pressures of American expansion and the inherent contradictions in their Indian policy, setting the stage for future conflicts.
2. The Relentless Tide of American Expansion
Old America seems to be breaking up, and moving westward.
Post-War Migration. The end of the War of 1812 unleashed a massive wave of American settlement, dubbed the "Great Migration," into the Ohio Country and beyond. Tens of thousands of settlers, driven by depleted lands in the East and the promise of new opportunities, poured into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. This rapid demographic shift intensified pressure on Indian lands, making the concept of a stable "Indian Boundary" increasingly untenable.
Disappearing Boundaries. The Greeneville Treaty Line of 1795, which once demarcated Indian territory, began to erode through a series of subsequent treaties. Figures like William Henry Harrison, despite his role in securing the original boundary, actively negotiated further land cessions, pushing tribes onto smaller, circumscribed "reserves" defined by American township lines. This process, often justified as "merciful" alternatives to outright slaughter, steadily chipped away at tribal sovereignty and landholdings.
Economic Pressures. The burgeoning American economy, fueled by agriculture and the need for improved transportation infrastructure like roads and canals, saw Indian lands as obstacles to progress. The fertile soils of Ohio were coveted, and the presence of Indian reserves was increasingly viewed as hindering economic development. This economic imperative, coupled with the sheer volume of new settlers, created an irresistible force that would ultimately displace the remaining Ohio tribes.
3. Monroe's Contradictory Indian Policy: Civilization vs. Removal
We shall be enabled to extend our settlements from the uninhabited parts of the State of Ohio along Lake Erie into Michigan Territory, and to connect our settlements by a state of degrees through the State of Indiana and the Illinois Territory to that of Missouri.
Dual Approach. President James Monroe, deeply affected by the near-collapse of the nation during the War of 1812, sought to establish a stable Indian policy. His approach had two main pillars:
- Reserves and Civilization: Negotiating treaties to move tribes onto smaller reserves within their traditional territories, while simultaneously encouraging them to adopt American farming practices and social customs.
- Civilization Fund Act: Securing annual funding ($10,000) to support missionaries and teachers in "civilizing" the Indians, aiming for eventual assimilation.
Growing Dissent. Despite these efforts, Monroe's policy faced increasing criticism. Frontier officials like Andrew Jackson and Lewis Cass argued that "civilizing" Indians on eastern reserves was futile and that removal west of the Mississippi was the only viable solution. They believed that contact with white settlers inevitably led to the degradation of Indian communities through alcoholism, debt, and violence.
Shift Towards Removal. By the end of his presidency, Monroe himself, influenced by mounting pressure from states like Georgia and reports of Indian suffering, began to advocate for removal. He concluded that a complete separation of the two peoples was necessary for the "security and happiness of the tribes" and the stability of the United States, setting the stage for a more aggressive removal policy under his successor.
4. Ohio Tribes' Struggle for Adaptation and Survival
To exchange an Indian life for the life of a white man, is nothing short of a thorough, radical change out and out.
Forced Transformation. Following the Treaty at the Foot of the Rapids in 1817 and subsequent agreements at St. Mary's in 1818, Ohio tribes like the Wyandot, Shawnee, and Seneca were confined to small township reserves. This forced them to abandon their traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles and rapidly adopt American agricultural practices. They learned to:
- Plow fields and raise crops (corn, wheat, hay)
- Keep livestock (cattle, hogs, horses)
- Build permanent log cabins and fenced farms
- Educate their children in English literacy and arithmetic
Missionary Influence. Christian missionaries, particularly Quakers among the Shawnee and Methodists among the Wyandot, played a significant role in this transformation. They provided tools, taught farming techniques, and established schools and churches. While many Indians resisted conversion, they often welcomed practical assistance, seeing it as a means to survive in a rapidly changing world.
Cultural Resilience. Despite immense pressure to assimilate, many tribes sought to retain their cultural identity. The Seneca, for instance, outwardly adopted white customs but inwardly maintained their traditional beliefs, including the White Dog Sacrifice. The Wyandot, while embracing Methodism, adapted it to their own spiritual needs, finding solace and order in a collapsing world. This period was a race against time, where tribes tried to prove their capacity for "civilization" in hopes of securing their remaining lands.
5. The Shawnee's Internal Conflict Over Removal
We will go anywhere you please, if you will afterwards let us alone, but we know from past experience, you will keep driving us until we reach the sea on the other side of the Rocky Mountains, and then we must jump off.
Deep Divisions. The Shawnee, like other Ohio tribes, were deeply divided over the prospect of removal. Older chiefs like Black Hoof, who had witnessed generations of conflict and broken promises, advocated for staying in Ohio and adapting to American ways, believing the government would honor its treaties. He famously warned against the endless westward push.
Prophet's Influence. In contrast, Tecumseh's brother, the Prophet, despite his earlier failures, became a leading voice for removal. He saw it as the only way to preserve traditional Indian identity, free from the corrupting influence of white settlers and whiskey traders. He actively campaigned among Shawnee villages, urging them to abandon their "civilized" farms and seek a new life in the West.
The Lure of the West. Younger Shawnee, disillusioned with life on shrinking reserves and yearning for the freedom of their ancestors, were drawn to the idea of a new homeland across the Mississippi. They envisioned a place where they could revive their warrior and hunter traditions, unburdened by American encroachment. This internal struggle, often fueled by desperation and conflicting visions of the future, ultimately weakened the tribe's ability to resist removal.
6. Andrew Jackson's Unwavering Push for Indian Removal
To him, their resistance proved that the Indians were still savages, who would never make the transition to civilization.
Frontier Mentality. Andrew Jackson, a product of the American frontier and a celebrated Indian fighter, held a deeply ingrained belief that Native Americans were "savages" incapable of true civilization. His experiences, from the brutal Creek War to the Seminole conflicts, solidified his conviction that Indians were an obstacle to American progress and a threat to national unity. He dismissed any evidence of tribal adaptation as mere pretense.
Political Imperative. Jackson's commitment to Indian removal was also a political calculation. He championed the cause of the "common man," particularly white farmers who coveted Indian lands. His electoral success in 1828, sweeping the Midwest and South, reinforced his belief that the American people supported his policy. Removing Indians would open up vast tracts of land for settlement, reduce the national debt through land sales, and fulfill promises made to states like Georgia.
Constitutional Justification. Jackson argued that Indian tribes were not sovereign nations but "subject peoples" who had lost control of the continent when the English claimed it. He viewed Indian reserves within states as an "anathema" to national unity, especially after the Cherokee drafted their own constitution. For Jackson, if Indians wished to practice their own laws, they must go west; otherwise, they must submit to state jurisdiction. This stance laid the groundwork for the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which granted him broad authority to oversee the "exchange" of eastern lands for western territories.
7. The Seneca's Forced Exodus: A Precedent for Ohio
Father; your red children know that you are a Great Warrior. They know that you are just and wise in council, and they believe that you love your red children, and will give them a kind answer.
Desperation and Petition. Despite their outward success in farming and adopting white customs, the Seneca of Sandusky were deeply unhappy. Crowded by white settlements, plagued by whiskey traders, and suffering from internal strife (including the execution of Seneca John for alleged witchcraft), they felt their traditional way of life was unsustainable. In desperation, they petitioned President Andrew Jackson, appealing to his reputation as a "Great Warrior" and a "just and wise" leader, to allow them to exchange their Ohio reserve for land west of the Mississippi.
Jackson's Opportunity. Jackson's administration, eager to implement its removal policy, seized upon the Seneca's petition. They saw it as a voluntary request that would set a precedent for other Ohio tribes. Colonel James B. Gardiner, a Jackson loyalist with no prior Indian affairs experience, was appointed to negotiate the treaty. The Seneca, viewing Jackson as their "savior," readily agreed to the terms, exchanging their 40,000-acre Ohio reserve for 67,000 acres in the Indian Territory (Oklahoma).
A Harrowing Journey. The removal, overseen by agents John McElvain and Henry Brish, quickly devolved into a "trail of tears." Despite promises of support, the Seneca faced:
- Inadequate provisions: Lack of food, blankets, and rifles.
- Harsh weather: Bitter cold, rain, and impassable roads.
- Disease: Outbreaks of dysentery and measles, leading to many deaths.
- Exploitation: Property sold for pennies on the dollar, and funds for removal deducted from land sale profits.
- Disunity: Internal divisions and drunken violence exacerbated their suffering.
The Seneca's journey, marked by immense hardship and loss, served as a grim harbinger for the remaining Ohio tribes.
8. The Shawnee's Harrowing Journey West
Our tribe is no more a great people. Our old Chiefs most all gone. Our warriors sit down most like E-qui-wa (women).
Forced Hand. Following the Seneca's removal, Colonel James Gardiner returned to the Shawnee, using intimidation and the recent death of their revered chief Black Hoof to pressure them into signing removal treaties. Despite their significant progress in farming and their deep attachment to their Ohio lands, the Shawnee felt they had no choice but to agree to move west. They exchanged their reserves at Wapakoneta, Hog Creek, and Lewistown for land along the Kansas River.
A Difficult Departure. The Shawnee's departure in September 1832 was fraught with delays, fueled by tribal mourning rituals, resistance to leaving, and widespread alcoholism. They insisted on an overland route, determined to take their horses with them, a request surprisingly granted by President Jackson. The journey, however, was plagued by:
- Poor planning: Inadequate supplies and miscommunication among agents.
- Harsh conditions: Relentless rain, mud, and early winter snows.
- Disease: Dysentery, consumption, and cholera outbreaks.
- Exploitation: Whiskey traders and curious settlers constantly harassed the caravan.
Arrival in Kansas. After months of arduous travel, the Shawnee and Seneca of Lewistown, along with Ottawa from the Auglaize, finally reached their new homes in Kansas and Oklahoma. The journey was a testament to their resilience, but also a stark reminder of the immense human cost of removal. Many died along the way, and those who survived faced the daunting task of rebuilding their lives in an unfamiliar landscape, far from the graves of their ancestors and the familiar comforts of Ohio.
9. The Wyandot's Final Farewell and Enduring Loss
Adieu to the graves where my fathers now rest! For I must be going afar to the West.
A Model of Civilization. The Wyandot, the last tribe remaining in Ohio, were arguably the most "civilized" by American standards. They had prosperous farms, a thriving mission school, a stone church, and a well-organized tribal government. Their capital, Upper Sandusky, was a testament to their successful adaptation. Yet, this very success fueled the desire of white settlers to acquire their valuable land.
Internal Debate and Tragic Catalyst. The tribe was deeply divided over removal, with many, particularly the Christian Wyandot, wanting to stay. However, the murder of Chief Summundewat by white settlers, and the subsequent failure of the justice system to prosecute the killers, became a turning point. This act of violence, coupled with the relentless encroachment of white settlers and whiskey traders, convinced a slim majority of the Wyandot that removal was their only path to survival and self-preservation.
The Last Trail of Tears. In March 1842, the Wyandot chiefs, led by Henry Jacques, reluctantly signed a treaty to sell their Ohio lands and move west. They took control of their own removal, organizing wagons and steamboat passage, and ensuring their horses traveled with them. In July 1843, the Wyandot embarked on the eighth and final "trail of tears" from Ohio. Their departure was a poignant moment, marked by a formal farewell to Ohio's governor and a cannon salute to William Henry Harrison's tomb.
A New Home, New Challenges. The Wyandot settled at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, establishing a new capital, Wyandotte (now part of Kansas City, Kansas). They quickly rebuilt their farms, schools, and churches, and even formed a temperance society to combat alcoholism. However, their new home was not the promised sanctuary. Within a decade, Kansas became "Bleeding Kansas," embroiled in the slavery debate, and the Wyandot, like other emigrant tribes, faced further displacement and the relentless march of American expansion, leaving a deep and enduring wound in their collective memory.
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