The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Volume II

1. Roman Persecution of Christians: A Complex Reality

To separate (if it be possible) a few authentic as well as interesting facts from an undigested mass of fiction and error, and to relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the extent, the duration, and the most important circumstances of the persecutions to which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of the present chapter.

Initial toleration. The Roman Empire, generally tolerant of diverse polytheistic religions, initially struggled to understand Christianity. Unlike the Jews, who were a recognized nation with ancient customs, Christians were seen as a new, unsocial sect that rejected all other forms of worship, leading to accusations of atheism and hostility towards mankind. This perception, coupled with their secret assemblies, fueled suspicion and resentment among the pagan populace and magistrates.

Varied severity. Persecutions were not consistently severe or widespread, often driven by local circumstances, popular clamor, or political expediency rather than systematic imperial policy. Emperors like Trajan, while punishing convicted Christians, prohibited anonymous accusations and active searches, demonstrating a degree of caution and reluctance. Periods of intense rigor were often followed by longer intervals of peace, during which the church grew and even gained some public acceptance.

Exaggerated accounts. Early Christian writers, eager to glorify martyrs, sometimes exaggerated the scale and cruelty of persecutions, attributing implacable zeal to Roman magistrates who were often more concerned with maintaining public order. Historical evidence suggests the number of martyrs was considerably smaller than later ecclesiastical accounts claimed, with many Christians escaping punishment through flight, dissimulation, or milder sentences like imprisonment or exile.

2. Constantine's Foundational Shift: New Capital, New Religion

The unfortunate Licinius was the last rival who opposed the greatness, and the last captive who adorned the triumph, of Constantine.

A new capital. After consolidating his power, Constantine chose Byzantium as the site for his new capital, Constantinople, recognizing its strategic location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. This decision was driven by political motives—to establish a new center of power free from Rome's pagan traditions—and personal ambition, aiming to create an eternal monument to his own glory. The city was rapidly built and adorned with treasures from across the empire.

Embracing Christianity. Constantine's conversion to Christianity, though debated in its sincerity and timing, marked a profound turning point for the empire. His Edict of Milan granted universal religious toleration, restoring Christian property and privileges. This shift was influenced by his personal experiences, political calculations (recognizing the growing strength and unity of the Christian community), and perhaps a genuine, if evolving, faith.

New administrative order. The founding of Constantinople was accompanied by significant administrative reforms, including a clear separation of civil and military authority. New ranks and titles were introduced, and the imperial court became more elaborate, reflecting an Eastern-influenced despotism. These changes, while aiming to strengthen the empire, also contributed to its eventual decline by creating a complex bureaucracy and weakening military discipline.

3. Constantine's Legacy: Power, Intrigue, and Family Strife

But the conclusion of his reign (according to the moderate and indeed tender sentence of a writer of the same age) degraded him from the rank which he had acquired among the most deserving of the Roman princes.

Degeneration of character. While Constantine's early reign was marked by virtue and military prowess, his later years were stained by rapaciousness, prodigality, and cruelty. His lavish spending on his new capital and court led to increased taxation and corruption, eroding the esteem of his subjects. He adopted an effeminate Asiatic pomp, a stark contrast to the simplicity of a Roman veteran.

Tragic family affairs. Constantine's domestic life was marred by a series of executions, most notably the deaths of his eldest son Crispus and his wife Fausta.

• Crispus, a capable and popular Caesar, was executed on vague accusations, possibly instigated by his stepmother Fausta.
• Fausta herself was later suffocated in a bath, allegedly for a criminal connection with a slave, or as revenge for Crispus.
  These events, shrouded in mystery, revealed a ruthless side to the emperor, willing to sacrifice family to passion or interest.

Succession challenges. Constantine's decision to elevate his three sons (Constantine II, Constantius II, Constans) and two nephews (Dalmatius, Hannibalianus) to imperial power created a volatile succession. This multiplication of rulers, combined with their inexperience and the inherent jealousies of the court, set the stage for future civil wars and instability, undermining the unity he had sought to establish.

4. The Arian Controversy: Dividing the Christian Empire

The schism of the Donatists was confined to Africa: the more diffusive mischief of the Trinitarian controversy successively penetrated into every part of the Christian world.

Philosophical roots. The Arian controversy, concerning the nature of the Divine Trinity, emerged from the intellectual ferment of Alexandria, where Platonic philosophy had influenced Christian theology. Arius, a presbyter, argued that the Logos (Son) was a created being, subordinate to God the Father, challenging the concept of co-equality.

Imperial intervention. Constantine, initially viewing the dispute as trifling, soon realized its disruptive potential and convened the Council of Nicea in 325 AD. The council, influenced by imperial authority, condemned Arianism and established the Nicene Creed, affirming the "Homoousion" (consubstantiality) of the Father and the Son. However, this did not end the debate.

Persistent discord. Despite imperial decrees, the controversy continued to rage, fueled by theological subtleties, personal ambitions of bishops, and political maneuvering.

• Constantine himself later showed leniency towards Arians and even persecuted orthodox leaders like Athanasius.
• His son Constantius II actively promoted Arianism, leading to widespread exiles and conflicts across the empire.
• The constant shifting of creeds and the fierce animosity between factions deeply divided the church and society, often leading to violence and sedition, as seen in Rome and Constantinople.

5. Julian the Apostate: A Philosopher-Emperor's Pagan Revival

A devout and sincere attachment for the gods of Athens and Rome constituted the ruling passion of Julian; the powers of an enlightened understanding were betrayed and corrupted by the influence of superstitious prejudice.

Early Christian education. Julian, orphaned by Constantine's family purges, received a Christian education but secretly harbored a deep affinity for Greek philosophy and traditional Roman paganism. This early exposure to Christian theological disputes and the perceived hypocrisy of his imperial relatives fueled his eventual apostasy.

Pagan restoration. Upon becoming emperor, Julian openly embraced paganism, assuming the role of supreme pontiff. He sought to restore and reform the ancient religion, emphasizing moral virtue, charity (emulating Christian practices), and elaborate sacrifices. He also attempted to rebuild the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem, partly to discredit Christian prophecy.

Artful persecution. Julian's approach to Christians was not direct persecution but a more insidious "artful persecution."

• He granted universal toleration but deprived Christian clergy of state privileges and funding.
• He famously prohibited Christians from teaching grammar and rhetoric, aiming to undermine their intellectual standing and force them into "ignorance and fanaticism."
• He removed Christians from positions of power, favoring pagans, and encouraged demands for restitution of temples destroyed under previous reigns.

6. Julian's Persian Campaign and Tragic End

The honor, as well as interest, of Julian, forbade him to consume his time under the impregnable walls of Ctesiphon and as often as he defied the Barbarians, who defended the city, to meet him on the open plain, they prudently replied, that if he desired to exercise his valor, he might seek the army of the Great King.

Ambitious invasion. Julian, inspired by Alexander the Great, launched a massive invasion of Persia, aiming for a decisive conquest. He assembled a large army and a fleet on the Euphrates, skillfully deceiving the Persians about his true intentions. His campaign began with initial successes, including the capture and destruction of fortified cities like Perisabor and Maogamalcha.

Strategic missteps. Despite early victories, Julian made critical errors. He burned his fleet and supply ships, cutting off his retreat and relying on foraging in a scorched-earth landscape. This decision, influenced by a Persian traitor, left his army vulnerable to famine and constant harassment by the Persian cavalry, who avoided pitched battles.

Death and disastrous retreat. During a skirmish, Julian was mortally wounded by a javelin, dying at the age of 32. His death left the Roman army leaderless and deep in enemy territory. The subsequent election of Jovian, a relatively obscure officer, led to a humiliating peace treaty with Persia, ceding five provinces and the strategically vital city of Nisibis, a significant blow to Roman prestige and territory.

7. Valentinian and Valens: Divided Empire, Persistent Threats

Valentinian bestowed on his brother the rich præfecture of the East, from the Lower Danube to the confines of Persia; whilst he reserved for his immediate government the warlike præfectures of Illyricum, Italy, and Gaul, from the extremity of Greece to the Caledonian rampart, and from the rampart of Caledonia to the foot of Mount Atlas.

Imperial division. After Jovian's brief reign, Valentinian was elected emperor and, recognizing the immense challenges of governing a vast empire, appointed his brother Valens as co-emperor, dividing the Roman world into Western and Eastern halves. Valentinian, a capable soldier, took the West, while Valens, less experienced, governed the East.

Internal and external pressures. Both emperors faced constant threats:

• West (Valentinian): Engaged in continuous warfare against the Alemanni on the Rhine, Saxons on the coasts of Gaul and Britain, and Moorish revolts in Africa (suppressed by Theodosius the Elder). Valentinian was known for his stern justice and military reforms.
• East (Valens): Dealt with the Persian threat and, more significantly, the burgeoning Gothic crisis. His administration was marked by timidity and susceptibility to court intrigues, particularly concerning religious policy.

Religious policies. Valentinian maintained a policy of religious toleration, respecting pagan and Jewish worship while curbing clerical avarice. Valens, however, was a staunch Arian and actively persecuted Nicene Christians in the East, exacerbating internal divisions at a time of external danger. This religious strife further weakened the empire's cohesion.

8. The Huns' Arrival: A Catalyst for Gothic Migration

The Huns, who under the reign of Valens threatened the empire of Rome, had been formidable, in a much earlier period, to the empire of China.

Nomadic origins. The Huns, a fierce pastoral people from the vast plains of Scythia (modern Mongolia), had a long history of conflict with China, forcing the construction of the Great Wall. Their nomadic lifestyle, characterized by constant movement, reliance on horses, and a diet of meat and milk, made them formidable warriors.

Westward migration. Driven by internal conflicts and pressure from other nomadic tribes like the Sienpi, the Huns began a westward migration. Their terrifying appearance and brutal fighting style struck fear into the Germanic tribes they encountered, including the Alani and the Goths.

Impact on the Goths. The Huns' arrival in Europe in the late 4th century had a profound and immediate impact. They overwhelmed the Ostrogoths, leading to the death of their king Hermanric. The Visigoths, under Fritigern and Alavivus, were then displaced and sought refuge within the Roman Empire, setting in motion a chain of events that would prove disastrous for Rome.

9. The Battle of Hadrianople: A Decisive Roman Defeat

The event of the battle of Hadrianople, so fatal to Valens and to the empire, may be described in a few words: the Roman cavalry fled; the infantry was abandoned, surrounded, and cut in pieces.

Gothic desperation. The Visigoths, having crossed the Danube into Roman territory, faced severe exploitation and famine at the hands of corrupt Roman officials. This mistreatment, combined with the arrival of more Ostrogothic refugees, ignited a full-scale rebellion under the leadership of Fritigern.

Valens' fatal decision. Emperor Valens, eager for military glory and disregarding the prudent advice of his generals and his nephew Gratian (who was bringing Western reinforcements), decided to engage the Goths prematurely near Hadrianople. His overconfidence and the Goths' strategic cunning led to a disastrous Roman deployment.

Catastrophic outcome. On August 9, 378 AD, the Roman army was decisively defeated. The Gothic cavalry, returning from foraging, enveloped the Roman infantry, which was already exhausted by heat and thirst. Valens himself perished in the battle, and two-thirds of the Roman army were destroyed. This defeat was a monumental blow, comparable to Cannae, and marked a critical turning point in the decline of the Western Roman Empire, demonstrating the vulnerability of Roman military power to barbarian forces.

Last updated: January 9, 2026