Key Takeaways
1. Life's Enigma: Order Amidst Atomic Chaos
The obvious inability of present-day physics and chemistry to account for such events is no reason at all for doubting that they can be accounted for by those sciences.
A profound question. The central inquiry of this investigation is how the complex, orderly events within a living organism can be explained by the known laws of physics and chemistry. While current scientific understanding might seem insufficient, this is not a reason to abandon the scientific pursuit, but rather to seek a deeper understanding within these very sciences. The challenge lies in reconciling the intricate, purposeful behavior of life with the seemingly random, statistical nature of atomic interactions.
Statistical laws. Most physical and chemical laws, particularly those governing macroscopic phenomena, are statistical. They emerge from the collective behavior of an enormous number of atoms, where individual atomic chaos averages out to predictable order. This principle is illustrated by the "√n rule," which states that the probable relative error in a physical law is inversely proportional to the square root of the number of cooperating particles (1/√n).
- For n = 100, error = 10%
- For n = 1 million, error = 0.1%
The initial paradox. For an organism to function with the observed precision, it must be composed of a vast number of atoms, ensuring that statistical laws apply accurately. However, the very core of life – the hereditary mechanism – appears to involve incredibly small groups of atoms, far too few to guarantee orderly behavior under conventional statistical physics. This discrepancy forms the crux of the biological enigma.
2. The Gene: An Aperiodic Crystal, Not a Statistical Blob
The most essential part of a living cell—the chromosome fibre—may suitably be called an aperiodic crystal.
A unique structure. The hereditary material, contained within the chromosomes, is not a simple, homogeneous substance. Instead, it is proposed to be an "aperiodic crystal." Unlike ordinary periodic crystals, which repeat a simple pattern endlessly, an aperiodic crystal possesses an elaborate, coherent, and meaningful design, akin to a Raphael tapestry compared to wallpaper. This complex, non-repetitive structure is crucial for storing vast amounts of information.
Information carrier. This aperiodic crystal acts as a "code-script," containing the entire blueprint for an individual's development and functioning, from a fertilized egg to maturity. This code is not merely a passive plan but also an active "executive power," instrumental in bringing about the development it foreshadows. The concept suggests that the intricate arrangement of atoms within this structure directly dictates the organism's characteristics.
Bridging disciplines. While physicists traditionally focused on simpler, periodic structures, organic chemistry, by investigating increasingly complex molecules, has moved closer to understanding this "aperiodic crystal." This convergence highlights why organic chemists have made significant contributions to the problem of life, whereas physicists, until recently, had made relatively few, due to their focus on statistical aggregates.
3. Tiny Genes, Immense Durability: A Paradox for Physics
That number is much too small (from the √n point of view) to entail an orderly and lawful behaviour according to statistical physics and that means according to physics.
The gene's minute scale. Genetic and cytological evidence suggests that a single gene, the material carrier of a hereditary feature, occupies a volume equivalent to a cube with an edge of about 300 Ångströms. This translates to a structure containing roughly a thousand to a few million atoms. This size is astonishingly small when considering its profound biological role.
Statistical challenge. According to the √n rule, a system composed of only a few thousand atoms is far too small to exhibit the precise, lawful behavior expected from statistical physics. In such small aggregates, the constant, disorderly "heat motion" of atoms would typically overwhelm any orderly arrangement, leading to unpredictable fluctuations rather than stable, consistent functions. The gene, however, is not a homogeneous liquid drop; every atom within it plays a specific, individual role.
Miraculous permanence. Despite its minute size and constant exposure to disruptive heat motion (around 98°F in warm-blooded organisms), the gene structure demonstrates an almost absolute permanence. Hereditary traits, like the "Habsburger Lippe," can be faithfully passed down through centuries and countless cell divisions. This enduring stability, in defiance of statistical expectations for such small atomic groups, presents a profound challenge to classical physical understanding.
4. Mutations: Quantum Jumps in the Code of Life
The mutations are actually due to quantum jumps in the gene molecule.
Discontinuous change. Contrary to Darwin's initial assumption of continuous, slight variations, biological evolution is driven by "jump-like" changes called mutations. These mutations are discrete, meaning there are no intermediate forms between the original and the changed state, a phenomenon reminiscent of quantum theory's discrete energy levels. This discontinuity is a fundamental characteristic of how hereditary information changes.
X-ray evidence. Groundbreaking research using X-rays revealed that mutations can be artificially induced, and their rate is directly proportional to the radiation dosage. This linearity indicates that a mutation is caused by a single, localized event within the germ cell. Further analysis showed this event to be an ionization or excitation occurring within a tiny "critical volume" of the chromosome, approximately ten atomic distances cubed.
- Mutation rate proportional to X-ray dosage.
- Mutation caused by a single ionization event.
- Critical volume for mutation is extremely small (~1,000 atoms).
Quantum connection. The discrete, sudden nature of mutations, coupled with their localized origin from high-energy events like ionization, strongly suggests a quantum-mechanical basis. The energy supplied by an X-ray-induced "explosion" (around 30 electron-volts) can overcome the energy threshold required for a quantum jump within the gene molecule, leading to a stable, altered configuration. This insight links the seemingly disparate fields of genetics and quantum physics.
5. Quantum Mechanics: The Secret to Molecular Stability
The molecule will of necessity have a certain stability; the configuration cannot change, unless at least the energy difference, necessary to 'lift' it to the next higher level, is supplied from outside.
Quantum theory's revelation. The stability and permanence of the gene, inexplicable by classical physics, find their explanation in quantum theory. This theory revealed that atomic systems possess only certain discrete energy levels, and transitions between these states occur as "quantum jumps." A molecule, formed when atoms settle into a lowest energy state, maintains its configuration unless a specific amount of energy is supplied to "lift" it to a higher, different state.
Isomeric transitions. Mutations are understood as "isomeric transitions," where a gene molecule rearranges its atoms into a different, but equally stable, configuration. Such transitions require overcoming an energy "threshold" (W), which is the energy difference between the initial state and an unstable intermediate state. This threshold, rather than the final energy difference, determines the molecule's stability against change.
Temperature dependence. The "time of expectation" for such a quantum jump (i.e., a spontaneous mutation) depends exponentially on the ratio of the threshold energy (W) to the average heat energy (kT) of the environment.
- Small changes in W/kT lead to enormous changes in stability.
- W/kT = 30: lifetime ~ 0.1 seconds
- W/kT = 50: lifetime ~ 16 months
- W/kT = 60: lifetime ~ 30,000 years
This exponential relationship explains how genes can be stable for centuries, while also accounting for the increased mutability of some mutants and the effect of temperature on mutation rates.
6. Life's Sustenance: Feeding on 'Negative Entropy'
What an organism feeds upon is negative entropy.
Evading decay. A defining characteristic of life is its ability to resist the natural tendency towards thermodynamic equilibrium, or maximum entropy, which is essentially death. Inanimate systems, when isolated, quickly degrade into a state of inert disorder. Living organisms, however, maintain their highly organized state for extended periods, actively counteracting this decay.
Metabolism's true purpose. While we commonly say organisms feed on energy, the deeper truth lies in their consumption of "negative entropy." Every process within an organism increases its internal entropy, pushing it towards disorder. To remain alive, an organism must continually draw "negative entropy" – or orderliness – from its environment. This allows it to compensate for the entropy it produces and maintain a relatively low, stationary entropy level.
Extracting order. "Negative entropy" is simply a measure of order. Organisms sustain their high level of orderliness by extracting it from their surroundings. For higher animals, this order comes from the highly organized chemical structures in foodstuffs. Plants, in turn, derive their negative entropy primarily from the highly ordered energy of sunlight. This continuous exchange is fundamental to life's persistence against the universal drive towards disorder.
7. Order from Order: Life's Unique Physical Principle
It appears that there are two different 'mechanisms' by which orderly events can be produced: the 'statistical mechanism' which produces 'order from disorder' and the new one, producing 'order from order'.
Two paths to order. Physics traditionally explains order through the "statistical mechanism," where order emerges from the chaotic behavior of vast numbers of particles (e.g., gas pressure, diffusion). However, living matter presents a fundamentally different mechanism: "order from order." Here, existing order directly generates and maintains further order, a principle rarely observed in inanimate systems studied by physicists.
Life's distinct mechanism. The orderly unfolding of life, from embryonic development to the precise functioning of cells, is guided by this "order from order" principle. A single gene, a highly organized atomic association, dictates a complex sequence of events with remarkable precision. This contrasts sharply with statistical laws, which rely on the average behavior of countless identical components. The biological situation is unprecedented in its reliance on a single, highly specific blueprint.
A new physical law. This unique mode of operation suggests that while life does not violate known physical laws, it likely involves "other laws of physics" that are not yet fully understood or appreciated. These are not "new forces" but rather principles that emerge from the specific, highly ordered construction of living matter. The challenge is to integrate this "order from order" principle into the broader framework of physics, recognizing its distinct nature from statistical thermodynamics.
8. The Chromosome: Nature's Quantum Clockwork
It is simply and solely that the latter also hinges upon a solid—the aperiodic crystal forming the hereditary substance, largely withdrawn from the disorder of heat motion.
The clockwork analogy. Purely mechanical systems, like an ideal clock, exhibit "order from order" behavior, maintaining their motion dynamically. Real clocks, however, are subject to friction and heat, eventually stopping. Yet, they function reliably because they are built from solids whose atomic bonds (London-Heitler forces) are strong enough to resist the disordering effects of heat motion at ordinary temperatures, effectively operating as if at "virtually zero temperature."
The gene as a quantum clockwork. The profound resemblance between a clockwork and an organism lies in their shared reliance on a stable, solid structure largely immune to thermal disorder. The gene, as an aperiodic crystal, embodies this principle. Its quantum-mechanical stability allows it to maintain its intricate order and function with precision, much like a finely tuned clock, despite being at biological temperatures.
A masterpiece of design. The biological "clockwork" is unique in two key ways:
- Distribution: In multicellular organisms, copies of the gene (the "cogs") are distributed throughout every cell, acting as decentralized "local governments" communicating via a common code.
- Exquisite design: Each gene is not a crude mechanical part but an atomic masterpiece, crafted by the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics. This intricate, quantum-level design enables life's unparalleled order and self-replication, pushing the boundaries of what physics can explain.
Last updated:
Review Summary
Similar Books
